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Dev Kid Welf. 2020 Oct twenty : 2516103220967937.

Parenting stress and risk of child maltreatment during the COVID-19 pandemic: A family stress theory-informed perspective

Qi Wu

^aneArizona Land University, USA

Observe articles by Qi Wu

Yanfeng Xu

²University of South Carolina, U.s.a.

Abstruse

The hazard of child maltreatment is heightened during the pandemic due to multiple COVID-19 related stressors, such equally physical and mental wellness concerns, economic stress, challenges in homeschooling, marital conflicts and intimate personal violence, and intensified kid–parent relationships. Both parental internal (e.g., parenting styles) and external resources (e.chiliad., social support), and parental perceptions toward stressors will affect how parents cope with these stressors, which may exacerbate or mitigate the gamble of kid maltreatment. Guided by family stress theory, this commodity identifies COVID-nineteen related stressors at the family level, and farther elaborates on how these stressors are associated with child maltreatment via parents' resource, perceptions, and coping strategies. Implications for future practice and research are discussed.

Keywords: COVID-19, family stress theory, heightened kid maltreatment risk, parental resources, parenting stress, perception and coping

Introduction

The novel coronavirus disease, 2019 (COVID-nineteen), has spread apace worldwide, and the fallout from the pandemic is even so unfolding (Yip & Chau, 2020). Policy measures, such as lockdown and social distancing, have been enforced to restrict the spread of the virus (Upal, 2020). Although these measures help reduce the spread of affliction, they may bear upon the normal economic development of the United States. According to recent data, the unemployment charge per unit has reached ten.two% (U.S. Department of Labor, 2020). Although inquiry has indicated that policies related to social distancing and self-quarantine are effective in reducing the spread of the virus (Lewnard & Lo, 2020), these policy measures decrease social connections, which negatively affects individuals' psychological well-existence (Whillans et al., 2017). Relatedly, about 1.4 billion children are out of school or childcare, with no access to group activities and team sports (Cluver et al., 2020). Given the closures of schools/childcare centers during the pandemic, working parents need to deal with the increased demands of homeschooling and expectations and requirements of their jobs. Parents that work in health care services or essential industries may feel even more stressed due to a lack of kid care and concerns related to contagion from the piece of work place.

COVID-19 has brought new challenges to almost every aspect of parents' and their children'due south lives. Economic stress, physical and mental health concerns, challenges in homeschooling, and balancing work and life may contribute to increased parenting stress, as well as the possibility of abuse and violence against children (Cuartas, 2020; Griffith, 2020; Humphreys et al., 2020; The Brotherhood for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action, 2020). Given that parental stress has increased during the COVID-nineteen pandemic and most children are staying home, kid adventure of maltreatment is predicted to be increasing (Abramson, 2020). Brooks and assembly (2020) recently institute that parents had more conflicts with their children and yelled at their children more oft in the first 2 weeks of the pandemic than that prior to the pandemic. Newspapers reported an increase in kid maltreatment during the periods of self-isolation, quarantine, and lockdowns (Cuartas, 2020). Although COVID-19 may increment adventure of child maltreatment, the number of maltreatment cases may exist underestimated (Merritt & Simmel, 2020), considering such reporting relies mainly on child welfare workers, teachers, doctors, and other professionals, and stay-at-domicile orders minimize their directly interactions with children (Welch & Haskins, 2020). In add-on, dwelling visits and in-home investigations, too as in-domicile services, may also exist express during the pandemic, which furthers the underestimate (SAMHSA, 2020). Such an underestimate might have occured in some states (e.g., Wisconsin, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Illinois) that reported a 20% to 70% drib in maltreatment cases reported in March 2020 (Welch & Haskins, 2020). A reported decrease does non indicate that children at risk are safety at home, for reasons merely noted. In fact, the rates of kid maltreatment usually increase during pandemics or emergencies (Peterman et al., 2020; Seddighi et al., 2019). Thus, an agreement of heightened chance of child maltreatment from a theoretical perspective is needed to inform practice and to prevent kid maltreatment.

This conceptual commodity uses family unit stress theory to explore gamble and protective factors associated with heightened risk of child maltreatment, and to inform child welfare researchers and practitioners how to raise child prophylactic during the COVID-19 pandemic. This commodity also provides suggestions for reducing family stress and increasing parental resource, developing positive perceptions, and actively coping to mitigate risk of child maltreatment, in club to better protect children during the pandemic, as well as to inform future research and practice.

Family unit stress theory

As early as the 1930s, Angell (1936) and Cavan and Ranck (1938) used family stress theory to study how families dealt with the loss of household income and the stress associated with unemployment. Family stress theory was developed past Hill (1949) in his study of wartime separation and reunion. Colina (1949) identified a roller-coaster pattern of aligning in reunited families, which involved initial disorganization, followed by recovery, and reorganization. This roller-coaster pattern can also be seen in the electric current COVID-xix state of affairs given that many people lost their job during the pandemic in the U.Due south. Loma'south ABC-X model (see Figure i) of family stress is the foundation of the current family stress theory. In this model, factor A refers to the stressor, which is the life issue or occurrence causing a change in the family unit's equilibrium. Cistron B stands for the resources or strengths that are used to aid people deal with stress. Gene C represents family members' perceptions of the causal result (i.eastward., how they define the result). The X factor is the outcome of the stress or crisis, which follows the application of coping strategies.

Family unit stress model and COVID-19 pandemic, adopted from Hill (1949).

A stressor is the first element of the ABC-X model. Hill (1949) conceptualized stressors as events or circumstances that identify pressure for change on a family system. Mutual stress events for a family might include daily struggles with schedules, developmental transitions, unemployment, poverty, disease, divorce, and the long-term demands of parenting (McKenry & Toll, 2005). This stress leads to a crisis point, and when people cannot handle this stress well with their internal coping skills or external resources, the stress then extends to become a claiming for the family. To avoid this stress contagion, parents must have adequate internal coping skills and resources to proceed stress at a manageable level. Stressors will non only bring about feelings of tension for parents, but also will modify the parent–child relationship and family dynamics (McKenry & Price, 2005).

The second chemical element of family stress theory is parental resources. Once stress is experienced, the resource available to a family will determine many of the strategies used to cope with the stress or overcome difficulties. Resources are individuals, families, or larger social networks that are valuable supports to help people cope. Resources can be financial; community-based programs, such as recreation programs, parks and leisure-fourth dimension activities; or other stress managing programs, such as therapy, parenting support groups, and respite intendance. To assistance reduce the number of potential stressors, external social support helps increment parents' capacities to cope with stress and reduce depression (Koeske & Koeske, 1990). Personal resources include personal traits, characteristics, health, education, parenting experience, as well as psychological qualities, such every bit cocky-esteem and self-epitome, which may affect parenting styles.

The concept of a stress event is in some ways neutral, equally both positive and negative events can be stressors. When it is a negative upshot, the stressors tin be a claiming for families. As to the third element, parents can construct their own perceptions or opinions as to whether stressor events are positive or negative. Individuals' perceptions of a given event are afflicted by their stage of evolution, early experiences, life views, and personal dispositions. When a stressful effect occurs, people tend to appraise the event subjectively so that some may view the stressor in a positive framework, because the result as a challenge or even as an opportunity to drive them to a new level of achievement. Others volition view the same circumstance in a negative framework and consider the outcome as a crisis. In this sense, a person'southward psychological responses to stressors are based on their cognitions and coping strategies (Folkman, 1999). Individual's coping strategies are also affected by personal tendencies and characteristics, such equally neuroticism, openness to new experiences, and life attitudes. Based on the interaction of stressors, a parent's resources, and perceptions, a parent will develop their own coping strategies to deal with stressors. The almost common types of coping are cognitive- or appraisal-focused, problem-focused, and emotion-focused (Folkman, 1999).

A crunch is believed to include an extreme stress response when individuals' resources are insufficient to help to cope with stressors and they practice not appropriately perceive the stressors. When parents think that they are going through a crisis, this perspective will affect all aspects of their normal life. On the emotional level, parents that feel overwhelmed by the pressure level of dealing with a crisis may feel depressed. In turn, parents' performance in the community and workplace volition also exist impacted by their poor mental status. On the behavioral level, when parents are experiencing a high level of stress, they may be more likely to vent their negative emotions through improper behavior, such equally physical or exact abuse (Rodriguez, 2010). Families with histories of domestic violence or child maltreatment are likely to express these negative coping tactics when under stress (Usher et al., 2020).

Because family unit stress theory explains working mechanisms of a family, this theory helps explicate how parents' behaviors arise during the COVID-19 pandemic. When facing challenges or crises brought past the pandemic, parents' resource, perceptions, and coping strategies make up one's mind parenting effectiveness and parenting behaviors.

Family stress theory and risk of child maltreatment during the COVID-19 pandemic

Stressors associated with COVID-nineteen

Although the impacts of this pandemic vary depending on contextual stressors that family members experience (Coyne et al., 2020), the COVID-19 pandemic has brought meaning multi-layer stress for families (Phelps & Sperry, 2020). These stressors and their impacts on family lives may as well vary by an individual'due south demographic characteristics, such every bit race/ethinicity (Goosby et al., 2012), and socioeconomic status (Emmen et al., 2013). The following are examples of meaning stressors that COVID-19 brings to families.

Physical health and mental health concerns

Due to the rapid manual of the virus and its serious health implications, family members may be afraid of and have concerns related to COVID-nineteen. Parents need to handle fear and feet in these uncertain times, and they may also need to inform and explicate to children about the COVID-xix pandemic. When parents cannot handle the challenges well, they may experience psychological distress. For depression-income families, parents are more likely to work every bit frontline workers in essential services, such as grocery stores, but they may not take the necessary safety equipment to protect themselves from possible contact with the virus (Kantamneni, 2020). In improver, prolonged social distancing and quarantine may lead to increased incidences of depression (Safai, 2020), alcohol corruption (Sganga, 2020), intimate partner violence (IPV; SAMHSA, 2020), and trauma (Crayne, 2020), which are risk factors for child maltreatment. For families that have parents or family unit members who have died or were ill due to COVID-19, parents may experience more psychological distress and have to deal with grief during these uncertain times.

Economical stress

The global COVID-nineteen pandemic has had profound effects on family economic well-existence. In just iv weeks later the declaration of a national emergency in the U.S., more than 30 1000000 people lost their jobs (Rugaber, 2020). The material and fiscal hardships due to the pandemic are hitting low-income, Black, and Hispanic families especially hard (Jenco, 2020). Even after the peak has passed, the pandemic will continue to bear on the economic system and employment, and millions of people will likely have no stable income in the nigh future (Crayne, 2020). Losing income or defective stable income, families will not be able to afford rent, utilities, cyberspace, or other daily expenses during and fifty-fifty after the pandemic. Loss of a job frequently means loss of medical insurance, which will simply exacerbate financial pressure, particularly for families that had a depression income. Many previous studies have shown that poverty or unemployment is significantly associated with increased family stress (eastward.thousand., Howe et al., 2012; Pignault & Houssemand, 2018; Thompson et al., 2013).

Challenges in homeschooling

Even if parents practise not face immediate physical or mental illness or unemployment, many are likely to feel an unprecedented daily stress associated with the challenges of homeschooling (Schneider et al., 2017). With the recent sharp increase in diagnosed COVID-19 cases, many schools have developed a remote learning format so that students stay at habitation and acquire online during the pandemic. This new change brings challenges for full-time or part-fourth dimension working parents. Since many schools are airtight, families take responsibilities to teach and support children academically in add-on to providing emotional support, which were originally charges of the schools. However, effective pedagogy and learning may not be fostered in families, and for children that have pre-existing behavioral and mental health issues, parents may non be able to deal with their issues adequately. Given that the pandemic has created significant socioemotional and financial stress on depression-income families, information technology has been difficult for children in these households to focus adequately on bookish tasks (Phelps & Sperry, 2020). The challenges of keeping children busy and safe at home are also exacerbated for those living in low-income and crowded households (Cluver et al., 2020). Furthermore, low-income families may have limited access to the internet, or parents may have limited time for homeschooling, and educational resources and knowledge, which may potentially increase gamble of child maltreatment. Even when schools provide online learning opportunities for children, many essential workers must exit abode and cannot support children for online learning.

Marital conflicts and intimate partner violence (IPV)

Prior research has found that increased marital dissatisfaction is associated with several factors, including fiscal problems (Amato & Rogers, 1997; Neppl et al., 2016), and physical (Daniel et al., 2009) and mental illness (Jarnecke et al., 2016), all of which may be possible results of the COVID-xix pandemic. Many people have reported that COVID-19 quarantines accept harmed their marital relationship, which could potentially atomic number 82 to a higher divorce rate once divorce courts are again fully open (Puente, 2020). For those that were experiencing IPV before the pandemic, the likelihood of exposure to domestic violence is increased due to quarantine (Fegert et al., 2020). This makes it hard for victims to ask for help and escape from abusive partners. In that location has been a rise in IPV worldwide during the menstruation of pandemic lockdown (Graham-Harrison et al., 2020). Such an increased IPV rate results in increased substance abuse (Conductor et al., 2020), which increases the take chances of child maltreatment (Fegert et al., 2020). In add-on, exposure to IPV would besides increment the likelihood of physical, sexual, and emotional violence against the children (Fegert et al., 2020).

Intensified parent–child relationship

The quarantine may increase tensions betwixt parents and children because they spend more fourth dimension at home interacting with each other. Without many opportunities to play with peers, children's social needs cannot fully be met, which may intensify the relationship with their parents. Prior research shows that the effects of disasters, such every bit Hurricane Katrina, tin can worsen many pre-existing problems for children and their relationships with parents (Shapiro et al., 2006). Therefore, quarantine may increase the frequency or intensity of cycles of interpersonal violence between parents, their partners, and their children. This situation may become worse especially for children that already had poor relationships with their parents, had behavior problems, mental illness, or other special needs before the pandemic. If parents practice non have constructive coping strategies and parenting skills, the COVID-19 pandemic may increase children's risk of maltreatment and adversity (Phelps & Sperry, 2020).

Parents' internal and external resources

Internal resources

An individual'due south internal resources include personal traits, life experiences, economic well-being, knowledge of parenting, health, and resilience (White & Wu, 2014). All of these factors comprise parents' internal resource that they may apply when under family stress, and they contribute to the development of their parenting styles. Baumrind (1966) proposed iii parenting styles: permissive, disciplinarian, and authoritative. Co-ordinate to Baumrind (1967), a permissive parent attempts to deport in a nonpunitive, affirmative, and accepting manner towards the child's behaviors, opinions, and desires. Authoritarian parents are those that shape, command, and appraise the attitudes and behavior of the child according to a standard of comport, usually an absolute standard. An authoritative parent directs children'southward activities in a rational manner, and they are responsive to the child'south emotional needs while having high standards. The latter is considered the most effective parenting style, because it makes demands that fit with a child's ability to be responsible for their own behavior. Considering parents have their own styles of parenting, unlike parents may respond with different parenting practices when facing the same challenges.

External resources

Ane of the most significant resources for parents is their social support, which has iii components: Emotional support that makes people feel they are cared for and loved; esteem support so people believe they are valued; and network back up consisting of a defined position in a complex of communication and mutual obligations (Cobb, 1979). In addition, financial support is essential to deal with financial challenges that are brought by stresses. For parents, formal supports include those received from their customs, children's schools and teachers, colleagues and the government, and breezy supports include those provided by family members and friends. One time they face difficulties in parenting or other aspects of their lives, obtaining more resources and advice from others helps parents overcome difficulties and more finer parent their children. On the opposite, defective social support may increment parents' anxiety and stress, which could negatively affect their parenting behaviors, such as increasing psychological assailment, corporal penalization, or neglectful behaviors.

Considering of keeping a safe social distance, the COVID-nineteen pandemic may influence parents' formal or informal social support systems regardless of the parents' social-economical condition. In add-on, parents may not be able to larn adequate support from children's schools and teachers in terms of homeschooling suggestions, and parents may non receive adequate back up from colleagues, family members, and friends. The pandemic likely affects families of depression socioeconomic status near significantly (Fegert et al., 2020). In terms of formal support, the current fiscal compensation from the U.S. federal government is not sufficient for parents that have been laid off during the pandemic. Therefore, the current erosion of social back up systems and the explosion of multiple stressors may increase vulnerabilities of parents, which may, in turn, atomic number 82 to increased violence confronting children at abode (Cicchetti et al., 2000).

Parental perceptions

Whether the COVID-nineteen pandemic becomes a crisis for a family depends on how parents construct their perceptions of a stressful event. The touch of the pandemic on parental perceptions is highly heterogeneous (Vinkers et al., 2020). Miragoli et al. (2018) proposed that parents' social-cognitive capacities are the basic building blocks underlying their parenting practices, according to the social data processing model. Parents' social-cerebral capacities, as well as the impacts of the pandemic, are afflicted by their personal characteristics, living conditions, health condition, income, previous life experiences, doubt about the futurity, and the level of perceived social back up (Southwick & Charney, 2012). For instance, if a parent has a positive life attitude and health status, he/she may view the pandemic from a positive perspective and may not be seriously impacted past the pandemic. The parent may treat the quarantine as a proficient opportunity to spend more than fourth dimension with the child, and she/he is more likely to prove a positive perception toward stressors associated with COVID-19 than parents with a negative life attitude and/or poor health. Research has shown that a positive attitude toward COVID-19 and confidence in epidemic control are associated with lower levels of depression and higher levels of happiness (Lu et al., 2020). In this case, more effective parenting exercise will exist used rather than child maltreatment.

Earlier taking any parenting activeness, parents commonly go through a cognitive procedure. Even if many parents seem to take actions without consciously thinking through potential actions and consequences, they will go through a cerebral process unconsciously. First, they perceive what has happened or what is happening in the family unit during the pandemic. 2nd, they interpret the electric current situation they are facing, which is afflicted by their personal characteristics. Third, they develop certain coping strategies (e.g., cognitive or appraisal focused coping strategy) based on their social supports or resources and perceptions. When a kid shows behavior problems, parents' tolerance may exist affected by their internal and external resources mentioned to a higher place, which further impact their agreement of the child'due south behaviors. It is important to mention that previous studies found that people'south characteristics may be inverse later some crisis (Peterson & Seligman, 2003). For example, Peterson and Seligman (2003) found that some grapheme virtues, such as hope, kindness, love, spirituality, and gratitude, increased after the 9/11 tragedy. Therefore, a parent's perceptions toward stressful events could be inverse via sure interventions that are focused on an individual's cerebral processes when facing stressors (Ngai et al., 2016).

Coping strategies

Both parents' resources and perceptions in the confront of the COVID-xix pandemic affect their coping strategies. Use of positive coping strategies helps parents build distress tolerance, increase social back up, make positive meanings, and have goal-directed and value-driven deportment during the COVID-19 pandemic (Polizzi et al., 2020). Finding means to engage with and appreciate life during a pandemic reduces posttraumatic stress symptoms and increases psychological well-being (Dekel et al., 2016). With positive emotions, individuals tin can rebound from negative experiences more easily (Fredrickson et al., 2003), and free-upwardly cognitive resources to argue with everyday stressors and arrange to fluctuating situational demands (Bonanno et al., 2010).

When facing the stressor of COVID-nineteen, parents may utilise different types of coping strategies. If they use cognitive- or appraisal-focused coping strategies, they may change their thinking about COVID-19, and re-appraise the impacts of the pandemic on their family unit lives. If parents use a problem-focused coping strategy, they volition detect means to deal with the challenges that the pandemic brought to their family. For case, they may find ways to become employed, if they lose a job during the pandemic. If parents use emotion-focused coping strategies, they may seek emotional support or counseling services when they are experiencing negative emotions. Given the complex and increased stress during the COVID-nineteen pandemic, parents that take few appropriate coping strategies may be more than likely to maltreat a kid (Abramson, 2020; Lawson et al., 2020). Previous literature has shown that abusive parents report a significantly higher level of parenting stress (Miragoli et al., 2016), and this may interfere with their power to cope effectively with parenting difficulties, thus increasing the likelihood of child maltreatment (McPherson et al., 2009). Therefore, increased stress, limited support, besides equally parents' perceptions during the pandemic may pb to the increased apply of inappropriate coping strategies while parenting, such as emotion- and avoidance-oriented strategies (Chen et al., 2016).

Increased risk and decreased report

Although there is an increased take chances for child abuse and fail during a pandemic, child maltreatment may exist underestimated given the challenges child protective services (CPS) are facing. When childcare centers or schools are closed and there is reduced surveillance (Herd et al., 2020), mandated reporters, such as teachers and doctors, accept less in-person contact with children, which could lead to less reporting of child maltreatment. Quarantine with family members may increase the risk of child sexual corruption, as this is more often than not perpetrated by people known to the victim (Finkelhor, 2009). Past the end of March of 2020, there was a 22% increase in monthly calls to the National Sexual Assault Hotline, and 67% of children that reported identified their perpetrator equally a family member (Kamenetz, 2020). In the meantime, CPS are besides facing additional challenges. When receiving a kid maltreatment study, social workers investigate and brand decisions equally to whether the case is substantiated. However, due to the coronavirus, social workers may non be able to conduct a thorough investigation through dwelling house visits and talking to parents and child, so at that place are lowered chances to make up one's mind whether maltreatment has occurred (Herd et al., 2020).

Implications for practice

Family unit stress theory provides a theoretical perspective to understand the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on increased chance of child maltreatment. To meliorate address challenges related to COVID-xix in family settings and protect children during the pandemic, we must empathise the nature of the stressors, make greater efforts to provide continuous resources and supports, build parents' positive perceptions towards stressors and other events during COVID-19, and encourage them to utilise advisable coping strategies. In this way, effective parenting practices tin can be adult to decrease the take a chance of child maltreatment. Nosotros recommend that practitioners that serve children and families, and parents that accept children at home, consider the following suggestions. To begin, as the family unit stress theory treats the family every bit a holistic unit, we recommend using a family-centered perspective instead of parent-centered or child-centered perspectives to address family stress, ameliorate parents' adequacy, and reduce adventure of kid maltreatment (Xu et al., 2020).

A major stressor revolves around physical health and mental health concerns. Parents and children should be educated to use effective measures to protect themselves and their children from COVID-19. For example, parents should actively learn and use strategies of self-protection available online regarding staying healthy during COVID-19, such as wearing masks, keeping social distances, and encouraging their children to do and then, as well. To reduce children's anxiety and fear, parents should brainwash children accordingly on how to protect themselves by providing noesis of COVID-19, and sharing emotions related to COVID-19 with their children. To address parents' and children's mental health concerns, we recommend offering more emotional supports via multiple sources, such as telemental wellness services, and peer support groups, to parents and children in demand. Both federal and land legislation and regulations have changed in response to the pandemic to increment availability of telehealth/telemental health services (American Psychiatric Association, 2020). In many states, health care providers accept used the telehealth/telemental health services via FaceTime, skype, or other apps, which increase availability of health care services during the pandemic (Conrad et al., 2020). Meanwhile, parents and children should be encouraged to maintain and strengthen social relationships with significant others, such equally relatives, friends, and colleagues, to build social support while keeping rubber social distance. Extra services that can build social supports or access to social services should be provided to vulnerable families that have been struggling with pre-existing challenges, such as poverty, social isolation, IPV, substance abuse, and child maltreatment prior to the pandemic.

The importance of having emergency funds and a stable fiscal status has been highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic (Sherraden et al., 2020). In terms of family economic stress, the U.South. federal authorities has provided financial supports to individuals, such equally a $1,200 stimulus cheque, and offer compensation and medical benefits for federal employees. However, more than attending should be paid to low-income parents that desperately need more financial back up and emergency funds to survive this pandemic (Sherraden et al., 2010).

In terms of the challenges of homeschooling, more opportunities to piece of work from home and more flexible work schedules should be provided to accommodate parents' needs. Parent back up groups could be developed, in which families pair with others to teach children together. In the upcoming academic year, many children and families may cull the online learning manner. Given that many parents need to piece of work on-site and full fourth dimension, the digital learning surroundings may create actress challenges for parents since it may require parents to help young children properly set up for such learning. Thus, social workers or kid welfare professionals should provide more child care/homeschooling support to parents by collecting information online regarding tips for providing kid care or homeschooling. Providing ideas about activities and resources to support learning at habitation will help to subtract parenting stress during the pandemic.

To improve marital relationships between partners in a ii-parent household, parents should give each other some carve up time, if desired, and recognize and capeesh positive life changes. To improve the relationship between the child and parent(s), parent(southward) are encouraged to remain calm, spend individual time with the child, and praise the child when they behave well (Un Children's Fund, 2020). Families should be more innovative in seeking supports to accept better access to social services and couple's therapy. For example, parents could employ online consulting services for support when coping with partner or kid related issues. Information technology is likewise important to advocate that free services should be provided to depression-income parents in this special time.

To reshape parents' perceptions towards COVID-xix related stressors, it is important for parents and children to make meaningful interpretations of COVID-19, and place their family strengths and resilience during this pandemic. When providing parenting interventions to parents, the interventions could focus on cognitive-beliefs changes to help parents re-recollect almost COVID-19 or their life experiences from a new and positive perspective, and then that they can explore possible beneficial impacts of these life events on their psychological well-being. Effective coping strategies should also be provided through parenting interventions for parents to learn positive means to cope with stress. More importantly, to address parents' negative perceptions, more than concrete support and resource should be provided for them, equally their perceptions toward stress might exist changed when support is increased (Pinto et al., 2019).

To foster constructive and positive coping strategies, more skills-based interventions should be implemented for parents. Past participating in such interventions, parents can learning different coping strategies, such as cognitive- or appraisal-focused, problem-focused, and emotion-focused strategies, and then that they can employ these skills to deal with family stress during the pandemic. Furthermore, preventive parenting interventions should be implemented to target loftier risk families and then that ineffective parenting practices may exist reduced. Interventions could be offered for free online during this pandemic to ensure child safety.

Past understanding the nature of the stressors, increasing parental resource, and changing parental perceptions and coping strategies, we may reduce the risk of child maltreatment (Abramson, 2020; Lawson et al., 2020; Ngai et al., 2016). As COVID-nineteen has transformed our lives in several ways, and it may get a new normal for us, parents and children need to adjust their perceptions about life changes acquired by COVID-nineteen and brand corresponding adaptations. Although services should be provided to all families regardless of socioeconomic status, more services should be bachelor to high risk and low-income families. Practitioners that serve this population may adjust social services using new technologies (e.k., virtual meetings) and new approaches (e.g., online services). Just while practitioners are making such adjustments, it is important that they consider whether these services are accessible to parents and children in need.

To reduce risk of child maltreatment during and afterward a pandemic, a public health prevention approach (National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, n.d.) would be beneficial. The first step is to recognize increased take a chance of child maltreatment during the pandemic. The 2d footstep would be to identify gamble and protective factors associated with child maltreatment during the pandemic. Our theoretical word, based on the family unit stress theory, has pointed out potential risk and protective factors, which could serve every bit a framework for practitioners. The third step would be to develop and examination prevention strategies. In addition to addressing the concern of the underestimation of the incidence of kid maltreatment, more ongoing training should be provided to mandated reporters, such as teachers and wellness intendance professionals, to identify take chances factors of child maltreatment when seeing children most. Meanwhile, since fewer opportunities of directly interactions between children and mandatory reporters exist during the pandemic, the function of not-mandated reporters of kid maltreatment becomes more important. Social support between neighbors should exist strengthened, as such, neighborhood collective cohesion is beneficial in terms of protecting children at a community level. Every bit COVID-nineteen does non appear to be ending soon, our recommendations can exist implemented past individual families first, then by more broadly customs led endeavour. A rapid prevention strategy based on these practices could exist published and used as a reference in the face of COVID-19, or other future disasters.

Implications for enquiry

Our theoretical discussion based on the family unit stress theory as well points to directions for future enquiry to sympathize risk of kid maltreatment during a pandemic or other types of long-term emergencies. Future observational research should collect cross-sectional and longitudinal data to examine relationships among identified COVID-nineteen related stressors, parental resources, parental perceptions, coping strategies, and risk of child maltreatment. Observational studies tin examine (one) how COVID-19 related stressors are associated with take a chance of child maltreatment, (2) how this human relationship is indirectly affected past other factors, such as parental coping strategies, and (3) whether parental resources and parental perceptions moderate the relationships between COVID-19 related stressors, coping strategies, and risk of child maltreatment. When examining these relationships, special attention should be paid to cultural differences in parenting practices and racial/ethnic disparities. Disparities in access to social services and children's outcomes should also exist examined past race/ethnicity, socioeconomic condition, and clearing status. In addition, future studies could compare different furnishings of various COVID-19 related stressors, parental resource, parental perceptions, and coping strategies on unlike types of child maltreatment, such as physical corruption, sexual abuse, neglect, emotional abuse, because the etiology of these subtypes of child maltreatment is unlike.

More than importantly, intervention research should exist conducted to reduce COVID-19 related stressors and their effects on family unit and kid well-beingness during and later this pandemic. This theoretical framework points to means of intervention, such as reducing COVID-nineteen related family stressors, improving parental resources, changing parental perceptions, and developing positive coping strategies. In addition to these intervention components, relying on technologies, such as computer or phone apps, is an innovative approach to delivering interventions. Researchers should examine whether these types of interventions are effective in decreasing parental stress and reducing chance of child maltreatment. Likewise, researchers could examine whether delivering interventions via computer or phone apps is every bit effective equally delivering in person. Because families of differing race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status may face different challenges, future studies tin too examine and compare the effectiveness of these interventions across these groups. In addition, more culturally sensitive and tailored interventions should exist developed for families with children that have experienced maltreatment prior to the pandemic, children with disabilities, children of immigrants, and children of colour.

The COVID-19 pandemic has not but transformed our lives, only also has exacerbated inequality and disparities across race/ethnicity, income, gender, and immigration status. Intersectionality refers to complex, irreducible varied variables, such equally race/ethnicity, gender, form, and their effects on individuals in a specific context (Nash, 2008). Different from the typical family that nosotros discussed above, families under other weather have unique experiences in their daily life, health, and educational activity. Future researchers should non utilise merely intersectional perspectives to examine critical differences in data fatigued from observational research and in the effectiveness of interventions, simply also to explore the diversity of families and their unique stressors and coping strategies.

Conclusion

This article uses the family stress theory to illustrate how the COVID-19 pandemic has potentially increased family unit stress, and how parental resource, perceptions, and coping strategies might interactively contribute to ineffective parenting practices and increased risk of child maltreatment. This article likewise shows that a similar conceptual framework might be used to reduce risk of kid maltreatment, as well every bit to identify directions for future research. In add-on, practitioners may explore and develop more than effective interventions based on the implications of this study to better help parents and families bargain with the challenges brought by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The writer(s) received no fiscal back up for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs: Qi Wu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1154-6186

Yanfeng Xu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8489-240X

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7576334/

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